Phylloxera vastatrix (ook bekend als Phylloxera vitifolii, Viteus vitifolii, Dactylosphaera vitifolii, Daktulosphaira vitifoliae) werd in de jaren 1960 geïntroduceerd door experimentele wijnstokken van de oostkust van de VS via Londen naar Zuid-Frankrijk. Tegen 1900 waren de meeste Europese wijnstokken (Vitis vinifera L.) aangetast of al vernietigd. Deze verwoestende plaag bereikte de Champagnestreek in het uiterste noorden van het land pas in 1890. Aanvankelijk werd de druifluis in Zuid-Frankrijk grotendeels genegeerd. Maar toen phylloxera uiteindelijk zijn werkelijk angstaanjagende destructieve potentieel bewees, werden alle denkbare bestrijdingsmethoden uitgeprobeerd. Er werd zelfs een andere soort luis (Tyroglyphus phylloxera) geïmporteerd, die beschouwd wordt als de aartsvijand van deze phylloxera (maar onschadelijk is voor wijnstokken). Helaas voelde deze luis zich niet echt thuis in het Europese klimaat en bleek hij nutteloos. Het behandelen van het gebladerte met chemicaliën zoals sulfure de carbone (koolwaterstofsulfide) leek een veelbelovend effect te hebben, maar bleek uiteindelijk ook niet effectief omdat het slechts één stadium van de complexe levenscyclus van de druifluis effectief beïnvloedde. Wat de wijnboeren zich toen niet realiseerden, was dat hun aangetaste wijnstokken in de praktijk eigenlijk twee soorten phylloxera tegelijk teisterden: bladluizen (gallicola) en wortelluizen (radicicola).
Wat wijnboeren ontdekken in de bladeren wanneer hun wijnstokken zijn aangetast, is al een vergevorderd stadium van de levenscyclus van de druifluis. Deze (blad)luizen zuigen aan de bladeren en laten tegelijkertijd hun speeksel los in de sapkanalen, wat op zijn beurt uitgroeisels (gallen) veroorzaakt aan de onderkant van de bladeren. Deze kleine gallen groeien rond de vleugelloze bladluizen (gallicolae) met een kleine opening naar het bladoppervlak. In deze gallen legt de bladluis enkele honderden kleine, citroenkleurige, ovale eitjes. Na ongeveer acht dagen komen nieuwe, jonge bladluizen uit de eitjes en blijven ze het gebladerte van de wijnstok aanvallen, waarbij ze opnieuw gallen vormen en meer eitjes leggen. Dit deel van de cyclus produceert drie tot zes generaties fylloxera, voornamelijk tijdens de zomermaanden. Uiteindelijk verkleuren de bladeren levenloos bruin en vallen ze af. Een deel van de bladluizen op deze bladeren trekt al eerder weg, de anderen vallen naar de grond (in dit stadium staan de bladluizen bekend als neogallicicolae-radicolae).
Eenmaal daar, zetten ze hun activiteiten voort op het wortelstelsel (deze bladluizen worden nu beschouwd als radicolae). Dergelijke omstandigheden in het blad moeten de ervaren wijnbouwers destijds hebben geïrriteerd, maar leken in eerste instantie zeker niet bijzonder zorgwekkend, omdat soortgelijke parasitaire neveneffecten in de wijnbouw of zelfs hopteelt al lang bekend waren. Wat ze zich echter niet realiseerden, was dat, ook al is deze bladfase van de fylloxera vrij onbeduidend, deze jonge fylloxera zich ook in de wortels van hun wijnstokken hadden gevestigd om daar als poppen te overwinteren. Bovendien zijn de (wortel)phylloxera en de pop bijna onzichtbaar, omdat ze qua kleur op de wortels lijken en ook erg klein zijn (0,7 - 1 mm). In de lente herleven de wijnstokken, de poppen vervellen, zuigen zich vast aan de wortels, vormen gallen en leggen opnieuw eitjes. Drie tot zes generaties Phylloxera ontwikkelen zich ook ondergronds. Aanvankelijk wordt het wortelsysteem niet erg beschadigd door de druifluis. Zodra het einde van de zomer nadert, krijgen sommige van de voorheen vleugelloze fylloxera vleugels. In de herfst verlaten ze hun ondergrondse woning, tasten dezelfde wijnstok bovengronds aan of migreren en vliegen naar andere wijnstokken, leggen ongeveer 5 eitjes ergens dicht bij de grond op de wijnstok of onder de bladeren van de nu aangetaste wijnstokken en sterven. De gelegde eitjes zijn klein (mannetje) of groot (vrouwtje). Ongeveer twee weken later komen er nieuwe bladluizen uit, dit keer mannelijke en vrouwelijke. Ze zijn echter alleen bedoeld voor de voortplanting en hebben geen organen voor parasitaire doeleinden. Ze paren en de moederbladluizen leggen nu een olijfgroen of bruin 'winterei' (ongeveer 0,27 x 0,13 mm), meestal verborgen in spleten in de bast van de wijnstok. Dit ei overwintert, verborgen in de schors, of er kan een nieuwe (1 - 2 mm lange) moederluis uitkomen in hetzelfde jaar. Deze luis wordt beschouwd als de 'stammoeder' (fundatrix) en keert zich naar het verse blad van de wijnstok en vormt zo een gal waar honderden eitjes worden gelegd. Deze ontwikkelen zich vervolgens tot (blad)luizen en de cyclus herhaalt zich. Na twee tot drie jaar sterft de wijnstok af (voornamelijk door wortelschade) en alle resterende bladluizen gaan naar de volgende wijnstok.
Als een wijnbouwer bladsymptomen ontdekt, betekent dit meestal dat naburige wijnstokken waarschijnlijk al lang zijn aangetast. Het rooien van de aangetaste wijnstokken, zelfs tot op wortelniveau, heeft over het algemeen geen zin. Integendeel: het kan de verspreiding van phylloxera zelfs aanmoedigen, omdat het in nieuwe regio's kan worden geïntroduceerd via gaten en nissen in gereedschap en landbouwapparatuur (zelfs via de laarzen van arbeiders of zelfs in manden) bij het verwijderen van de struiken en wortels bijvoorbeeld.
Phylloxera zelf verspreidt zich (zonder 'hulp' van mensen) vrij langzaam (ongeveer 25-30 km/jaar). De gevleugelde wijnbladluizen leggen over het algemeen slechts zeer korte afstanden af (met een optimale rugwind is 30 km echter denkbaar). De gevleugelde bladluizen worden ook af en toe door de wind op naburige wijnstokken geblazen. Bladluizen migreren ook ondergronds naar verstrengelde wortels van andere wijnstokken. Klimatologisch gunstige omstandigheden (warmer klimaat) bevorderen de levenscyclus.
Laten we echter even teruggaan naar de Champagne van die tijd. Het koelere klimaat zorgde ervoor dat de druifluis in het begin maar langzaam op gang kwam. De wijnboeren in Bordeaux bijvoorbeeld waren al vergevorderd in de strijd tegen de druifluis, waardoor de wijnboeren in de Champagne al van tevoren gewaarschuwd waren (en ervaring hadden met de bestrijding). De plaag kwam in de Champagne dus nauwelijks 'onverwacht'. Daarom werd op 13 juni 1891 een bijeenkomst van alle wijnboeren in de Champagne gehouden in Epernay om het samen tegen de nieuwe vijand op te nemen. De slogan van de Franse musketiers 'één voor allen en allen voor één' had echter weinig te maken met de wijnboeren in de Champagne. Van de 25.729 wijnboeren die er op dat moment waren, meldden slechts 17.370 zich aan bij het nieuwe 'Syndicat de Defénce'. De opmars van de druifluis kon door dit onvolledige syndicaat dus nauwelijks worden voorkomen, maar wel enigszins worden afgeremd. Iemand in Frankrijk had zich intussen blijkbaar gerealiseerd dat de oorspronkelijk uit de VS geïmporteerde wijnstokken ondanks de druifluis goed gedijden en dat ze grotendeels immuun zijn voor de druifluis. Dit betekende dat de inheemse wijnstokken gerooid moesten worden en dat er snel phylloxera-resistente wijnstokonderstammen uit de VS moesten worden geënt met inheemse wijnstokken. Desondanks trof Phylloxera de ongeënte wijnstokken in alarmerende mate. Tegen 1910 was de helft van de wijngaarden in de Marne-regio al hopeloos aangetast door phylloxera.
Er waren en zijn dus verschillende opties voor wijnbouwers (niet alleen) in Europa om phylloxera succesvol te bestrijden. Veruit de voorkeursoplossing in Europa was en is het gebruik van onderstammen van tegen phylloxera resistente Amerikaanse druivenrassen (bijv. Vitis riparia, rotundifolia, berlandieri, rupestris, lambrusca) met daaropvolgend enten van Europese Vitis vinifera L druivenrassen (geënte wijnstokken). Er wordt echter gezegd dat de verschillende Amerikaanse onderstammen een verschillende kwaliteit en opbrengst van vinifera fruit hebben. Volgens een verslag in de Sonoma County Viticulture Newsletter worden de bladeren van de Europese Vitis vinifera L druivenrassen niet bijzonder begunstigd door Phylloxera (zie verwijzing naar het bijbehorende PDF-bestand hieronder).
Een andere oplossing was het kweken van Amerikaanse wijnstokken (zoals de bekende Noah en Isabella wijnstokken).
De Amerikaanse wijnstokken werden ook met succes gekruist met Europese wijnstokken. Dit resulteerde in bekende hybride variëteiten zoals Baco, Delaware en Othello.
De druifluis wordt historisch gezien als het grootste ongeluk van de wijnbouw in Frankrijk (of Europa). Aan de andere kant werd Frankrijk vóór de druifluis vrijwel overspoeld met talloze inferieure druivenrassen op vaak ongunstige locaties. Bij het herplanten met nieuwe wijnstokken uit de VS zorgden de wijnboeren ervoor dat alleen de beste binnenlandse druivenrassen op hun goede locaties deze aanzienlijke investering in arbeid en geld voor dit enten kregen. Phylloxera blijft ook een internationaal probleem voor wijnbouwers in Europa en vele andere landen (waaronder bijvoorbeeld aan de westkust van de VS). Bovendien wordt de biologie van de druifluis nog steeds niet volledig begrepen. Zelfs de beroemde NASA houdt zich bezig met deze druifluis. Angstaanjagend genoeg is er nu ook sprake van mutaties. De strijd tegen phylloxera is dus nog lang niet gewonnen.
Terug naar de woordenlijst | Je was hier: Phylloxera
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